INDIAN FINANCE SYSTEM

 INDIAN FINANCE SYSTEM

Savings mobilization and promotion of investment are functions of the stock and capital markets, which are a part of the organized Finance system in India. The objective of all economic activity is to promote the well being and standard of living of the people, which depends on the income and distribution of income in terms of real goods and services in the economy. The production of output, which is vital to the growth process in the economy, is a function of the many inputs used in the productive process. These inputs are material inputs (in the form of physical materials, viz., raw materials, plant, machinery, etc.), human inputs (in the form of labor and enterprise) and Finance inputs (in the form of capital, cash and credit). The easy availability of Finance inputs promotes the growth process through proper coordination between human and material inputs.

The Finance inputs emanate from the Finance system, while real goods and services are part of the real system. The interaction between the real system (goods and services) and the Finance system (money and capital) is necessary for the productive process. Trading in money and monetary assets constitute the activity in the Finance markets and are referred to as the Finance system.

Finance System: The term “liquidity” is used to refer to cash, money and nearness to cash. Money and monetary assets are traded in the Finance system. Thus, provision of liquidity and trading in liquidity are the major functions of the Finance system. While cash creation is the function of the RBI, banks do credit creation and Finance institutions including the RBI, banks and term-leading institutions, deal in claims on money or monetary assets.

These institutions are all a part of the Finance system. Sector-wise, government and business sectors are the major borrowers whose investment is always greater than savings. On the other hand, in India the household and foreign sectors are the net savers, with savings exceeding investment. The Finance system provides the intermediation between investors and helps the process of specialization and sophistication in the Finance infrastructure, leading to greater Finance development that is prerequisite for faster economic development.

     

DEBTS: DEBENTURES, TYPES OF DEBENTURES

DEBENTURES: When borrowed capital is divided into equal parts, then, each part is called as a debenture. Debenture represents debt. For such debts, company pays interest at regular intervals. It represents borrowed capital and a debenture holder is the creditor of the company.

Debenture holder provides loan to the company and he has nothing to do with the management of the company.

Kinds of Debentures: A company can issue different kinds of debentures.

a) Registered and Bearer Debentures: This classification of debentures is made on the basis of transferability of debentures. Registered debentures are those in respect of which the names, addresses, and particulars of the holdings of debenture holders are entered in a register kept by the company. The transfer of ownership of such debentures is possible through a regular instrument of transfer which is duly signed by the transferee and the transferor. However, the transfers are freely allowed through the execution of a regular Transfer Deed. Only formal approval of the Board is necessary. Interest on such debentures is paid through interest warrants. Bearer debentures are transferable by mere delivery. They are freely negotiable instruments. The company keeps no records of the debenture- holders in the case of bearer debentures. Such debentures are similar to Share Warrants; the interest on them is paid by means of attached coupons which encashed by the holder are as and when cash falls due. On maturity, the principal sum of Bearer Debenture is paid back to the holder.

b)Secured and Unsecured Debentures: This classification is made on the basis of security offered to debenture-holders. Secured debentures are those which are secured by some safe charge on the property of the company. The charge or, mortgage may be “Fixed”, or, “Floating”, and thus, there may be “Fixed Mortgage Debentures”, or, “Floating Mortgage Debentures” depending upon the nature of charge under the category of Secured Debentures. Unsecured, or, Naked Debentures are those that, are secured by any charge on the assets of the company. The holders of such debentures are like ordinary creditors of the company. The general solvency of the company is the only security available to unsecured or, naked debentures.

c)Redeemable And Irredeemable Debentures: This classification is made on the basis of terms of repayment. Redeemable Debentures are for fixed period and they provide for payment of the principal sum on specified date, or, on demand, or, notice. Irredeemable Debentures are not issued for a fixed period. The issuing company does not fix any date by which the principal would be paid back. The holders of such debentures cannot demand payment from the company so long as it is a going concern. Such debentures are perpetual in nature as they are payable after a long time, or, on winding up of the company.

d)Convertible And Non- Convertible Debentures: This classification is made on the convertibility of the debentures. Convertible Debentures are those which are convertible into Equity Shares on maturity as per the terms of issue. Convertible Debentures are those which are convertible into equity shares on maturity as per the terms of issue. Convertible debentures are now popular in our India and many companies issue convertible debentures which are automatically converted into shares after a fixed period, or, date (usually, after three years). The rate of exchange of debentures into shares is also decided at the time of issue of debentures. Interest is paid on such debentures till

conversion. Such debentures are popular with the investing class. Non- Convertible Debentures are not convertible into Equity Shares after some period, or, on maturity. Prior approval of the shareholders is necessary for the issue of convertible debentures. It also requires sanction of the central government. The conversion of debentures into shares particularly of profitable companies is always advantageous to debenture holders as well as to the company.

Demerits of Debentures

a)Interest obligatory.

b)High liability.

c)Charged against assets.

d)Not meant for weak firms.

Merits of Debentures

a)Issuing is cheap.

b)No dilution of control.

c)Best for depression periods.

FINANCE INSTRUMENTS, EQUITY SHARES, PREFERENCE SHARES, RIGHT ISSUE

Why there is a need for Finance: Every business needs funds both for short term and long term. They may need working capital, or, fixed capital. The finance may be obtained from the varied sources and through various instruments. The various sources of finance include shareholders, Finance instruments, and Finance institutions and so on. The funds can be collected through various instruments such as equity shares, convertible bonds, non- convertible debentures, fixed deposits, loan agreements, and so on. The finance is needed at various stages and for various purposes like promoting a business, smooth conduct of business activities.

Methods of Raising Finance

1.Public Issue of Shares: The company can raise a substantial amount of fixed capital by issue of shares- equity and preference. In India, however, equity shares are more popular as compared to preference shares. The issue of shares requires a number of formalities to be completed such as approval of prospectus by S.E.B.I., appointment of underwriters, bankers, and registrars to the issue, filing of the prospectus with the registrar of companies, and so on.

2.Rights Issue of Shares: A Right issue is issue of shares to the existing shareholders of the company through a Letter of Offer made in first instance to the existing shareholders on pro data basis. The shareholders have a choice to forfeit this right partially or fully. The company, then issue this additional capital to public. This is an inexpensive method as underwriting commission, brokerage are very small. Rights issue prevents dilution of control but it may conflict with the broader objective of wider diffusion of share capital.

3.Private Placement of Shares: This is a method of raising funds from a group of Finance institutions and others who are ready to invest in the company.

4.Issue of Debentures: There are companies who collect long term funds by issuing debentures- convertible, or, non convertible. Convertible debentures are very popular in the Indian market.

5.Long Term Loans: The company may also obtain long term loans from banks and Finance institutions like I.D.B.I., I.C.I.C.I., and so on. The funding of term loans by Finance institutions often acts as an inducement for the investors to sub- scribe for the shares of the company. This is, because, the Finance institutions study the project report of the company before sanctioning loans. This creates confidence in the investors, and they too, lend money to the company in form of shares, debentures, fixed deposits, and so on.

6. Accumulated Earnings (Reserves): The Company often resorts to ploughing back of profits that, is, retaining a part of profits instead of distributing the entire amount to shareholders by way of dividend. Such accumulated earnings are very useful at the time of replacements, or, purchases of additional fixed assets.

We will discuss rights issue in detail.

Rights Issue: Rights issue is an invitation to the existing shareholders to subscribe for further shares to be issued by a company. A right simply means an option to buy certain securities at a certain privileged price within a certain specified period. The Company Act, 1956 lays down the manner in which further issue of shares, whether equity or preference, is to be made so as to ensure equitable distribution of shares without disturbing the established equilibrium of shareholding in the company. According to Section 81 of the Companies Act, whenever a public limited company proposes to increase its subscribed capital by the allotment of further shares, after the expiry of two years from the formation of the company or the expiry of one year from the first allotment of shares in the company, whichever is earlier, the following conditions or procedure must be followed:

• Such shares must be offered to holders of equity shares in proportion, as nearly as circumstances admit, to the capital paid-up on those share.
• The offer must be made by giving a notice specifying the number of shares offered.
• The offer must be made to accept the shares within a period specified in the notice being not than 15 days.
• Unless the articles of association of the company provide otherwise, the notice must also state that the shareholder has the right to renounce all or any of the shares offered to him in favor of his nominees.

Shares so offered to existing shareholders are called Right Shares as the existing equity shareholders of the public company have a first right of allotment of further shares. The offer of such shares to the existing equity shareholder is known as Privileged Subscription or Right Issue. The prior right of the shareholders is also known as pre-emptive right. After expiry of the time specified in the notice or on receipt of earlier information from the shareholder declining to accept the shares offered, the Board of Directors may dispose them off in such a manner as they think most beneficial to the company.

Advantages of Rights Issue

 

1. It ensures that the control of the company is preserved in the hands of the existing shareholders.

2. The expenses to be incurred, otherwise if shares are offered to the public, are avoided

3. There is more certainty of the shares being sold to the existing shareholders.

4. It betters the image of the company and stimulates enthusiastic response from shareholders and the investment market.

It ensures that the directors do not misuse the opportunity of issuing new shares to their relatives and friends at lower prices on the one hand and on the other get more controlling rights in the company.

Finance Instruments: The capital of a joint stock company can be divided into “Owned capital” and “Borrowed capital”. Owned capital means the capital of the owners which comprises of shares, both preference and equity and borrowed capital comprises of debentures, fixed deposits and bonds.

Shares: A share can be defined as “A fraction part of the capital of the company which forms the basis of ownership and interest of a subscriber in the company”. Precisely, a share is a small part of the total capital. When the owned capital is divided into a number of equal parts, then, each part is called as a share. A person who contributes for a share is called as a share- holder.

Types of shares: Shares can be broadly divided into equity shares and preference shares

Equity Shares: Shares which enjoy dividend and right to participate in the management of Joint Stock Company are called equity shares, or, ordinary shares. They are the owners and real risk bearers of the company. Equity shares can be defined as per as our Indian Companies Act (1956) as, “Shares which are not preference shares are equity shares, or, ordinary shares”. Equity shareholders are the real owners of the company and, therefore, they are eligible to share the profits of the company. The share given to equity shareholders in profits is called “Dividend”. At the time of winding of company, the capital is paid back last to them after all other claims have been paid in full.

Advantages of Equity Shares:

 

a) The company has no immediate liability to pay it.

b) No fixed dividend obligation.

c) Increases creditworthiness of business, ceteris paribus.

d) No charge created on assets of the business.

e) Shareholders control the company.

f) Limited liability of the investors.

g) High dividends.

h) No collateral security needed.

i) g. Increases firm credibility.

 

Disadvantages of Equity Shares:

 

a) Equity dividend not tax- deductible.

b) High cost of equity issue.

c) Gradual dilution of shareholder‟s control over business.

d) Manipulation by a few shareholders.

e) Dividend at the discretion of the Directors.

f) Very risky investment.

g) Residual claim on investments.

 

Preference Shares: Shares which enjoy preference as regards dividend payment and capital repayment are called “Preference Shares”. They get dividend before equity holders. They get back their capital before equity holders in the event of winding up of the company. The owners of these shares have a preference for dividend and a first claim for return of capital; when the company is closed down. But, their dividend rate is fixed. Preference share can be of following types:

a) Cumulative Preference Shares: Such shareholders have a right to claim the dividend. If, dividend is not paid to them, then, such dividend gets accumulated, and, therefore, they are called as “Cumulative Preference shares”.

b) Non- Cumulative Preference Shares: They are exactly opposite to cumulative preference shares. Their right to get dividend lapses if, they are not paid dividend and it does not get accumulated. Thus, their right to claim dividend for the past years will lapse and will not be accumulated.

c) Participating Preference Shares: Such shareholders have a right to participate in the excess profits of the company, in addition to their usual dividend. Thus, if, there are excess profits and huge dividends, are declared in the equity shares, the holders of these all shares get a second round of dividend along with equity shareholders; after a dividend at a certain rate has been paid to equity shareholders.

d) Non- Participating Preference Shares: Such shareholders do not have any right to share excess profits. They get only fixed dividend.

e) Convertible Preference Shares: Such shares can be converted into equity shares, at the option of the company.

f) Redeemable Preference Shares: Such shares are to be redeemed, or, paid back in cash to the holders after a period of time.

g) Non- Redeemable Preference Shares: Such shares are not paid in cash during the life of the company.

 

Merits of Preference Shares

 

a) Fixed dividend.

b) First claim on company assets.

c) Cost of capital is low.

d) No dilution over control.

e) No dividend obligation.

f) No redemption liability.

 

Demerits of Preference Shares:

 

a) Not a very high dividend rate.

b) No voting rights.

c) Dividends paid are not tax- deductible.

d) Non payment of dividend affects firm.

 

What are the objectives of the Financial Management?

Objectives of the Financial Management

The main objective f a business is tom maximize the owner's economic welfare. Financial Management provides a framework for selecting a proper course of action and deciding a commercial strategy.

The objectives can be achieved by: (i) Profit maximization (ii) Wealth maximization

Profit Maximization: Profit earning is the main aim of every economic activity. A business being an economic institution must earn profit to cover its cists and provide funds for growth. No business ca survives without earning profit. Profit is a measure of efficiency of a business enterprise. Profit also serves as a protection against risks which cannot be ensured. 

Arguments in favor of Profit Maximization

1.When profit earning is the aim of the business then the profit maximization should be the obvious objective.

2.Profitability is the barometer for measuring the efficiency and economic prosperity of a business enterprise, thus profit maximization is justified on the ground of the rationality.

3.Profits are the main source of finance for the growth of the business. So a business should aim at maximization of the profits for enabling its growth and development.

4.Profitability is essential for  fulfilling the social goals also. A firm by pursuing the objectives of profits maximization also maximizes the socio economic welfare.

5.A business may be able to survive under unfavorable condition only if it had some past earnings to rely upon.

Arguments against of Profit Maximization

1.It is precisely defined. It means different things for different people. The term „Profit‟ is vague and it cannot be precisely defined. It means different things for different people. Should we mean (i) Short term profit or long term profit? (ii) Total profit or earning per share? (iii) Profit before tax or after tax? (iv) Operating profit or profit available for the shareholders?

2. It ignores the time value of money and does not consider the magnitude and the timing of earnings. It treats all the earnings as equal though they occur in different time periods. It ignores the fact that the cash received today is more important than the same amount if cash received after, say, three years.

3. It does not take into consideration the risk of the prospective earning stream. Some projects are more risky than others. Two firms may have same expected earnings per share, but if the earning stream in one is more risky the market share of its share will be comparatively less.

4.The effect of the dividend policy on the market price of the shares is also not considered in the objective of the profit maximization. In case, earnings per share is the only objective then the enterprise may not think of paying dividends at all because it retains profits in the business or investing them in the market may satisfy this aim.

Wealth Maximization

 Finance theory asserts that the wealth maximization is the single substitute for a stake holder's utility. When the firm maximizes the shareholder's wealth, the individual stakeholders can use this wealth to maximize his individual utility. It means that by maximizing stakeholder's wealth the firm is operating consistently toward maximizing stakeholder's utility. A stake solder's wealth in the firm is the product of the numbers of the shares owned, multiplied within the current stock price per share.

Stockholder’s current wealth in the firm = (No. Of shares owned) * (Current stock price per share)

Higher the stock price per share, the greater will be the shareholder's wealth. Thus a firm should aim at maximizing its current stock price, which helps in increasing the value of shares in the market.

Implication of the wealth maximization:

1.The Concept of wealth maximization is universally accepted, because it takes care of interest of Finance institution, owners, employees and society at large.

2.Wealth maximization guides the management in framing the consistent strong dividend policy to reach maximum returns to the equity holders.

3.Wealth maximization objective not only serves the interest of the shareholder's by increasing the value of their holdings but also ensures the security to the lenders.

Criticism of wealth maximization:

1. It is a prescriptive idea. The objective is not descriptive of what the firm actually does.

2. The objective of wealth maximization is not necessarily socially desirable.

3. There is some controversy as to whether the objective is to maximize the stockholder's wealth or the wealth of the firm, which includes other Finance claimholder's such as debenture holders, preference shareholders.

4. The objective of wealth maximization may also face difficulties when ownership and management are separated, as is the case in most of the corporate form of organizations. When managers act as the agents of the real owner, there is the possibility for a conflict of interest between shareholders and the managerial interests.

What are the Functions of Financial Management?

Functions of Financial Management

A Finance manager has to concentrate on the following areas of the finance function.

1. Estimating Finance Requirements: The first task of the Finance manager is to estimate short term and long-term Finance requirement of his business. For this purpose, he will prepare a Finance plan for present as well as future. The amount required for purchasing fixed assets as well as the needs of funds for working capital has to be ascertained. The estimation should be based on the sound Finance principles so that neither there are inadequate or excess funds with the concern. The inadequacy will affect the working of the concern and excess funds may tempt a management to indulge in extravagant spending.

2. Deciding Capital Structure: The capital structure refers to the kind and proportion of the different securities for raising funds. After deciding about the quantum of funds required it should be decided which type of security should be raised. It may be wise to finance fixed securities through long term debts. Long-term funds should be employed to finance working capital also. Decision about various sources of funds should be linked to cost of raising funds. If cost of rising funds is high, then such sources may not be useful. A decision about the kind of the securities to be employed and the proportion in which these should be used is an important decision which influences the short term and the long term planning of the enterprise.

3. Selecting a Source of Finance: After preparing a capital structure, an appropriate source of finance is selected. Various sources from which finance may be raised, includes share capital, debentures, Finance deposits etc. If finance is needed for short periods then banks, public's deposits, Finance institutions may be appropriate. If long-term finance is required the share capital, debentures may be useful.

4. Selecting a Pattern of Investment: When fund have been procured then a decision about investment pattern is to be taken. The selection of investment pattern is related to the use of the funds. A decision has to be taken as to which assets are to be purchased? The fund will have to be spent first. Fixed asset and the appropriate portion will be retained for the working capital. The decision making techniques such as capital Budgeting, opportunity cost analysis may be applied in making decision about capital expenditures. While spending in various assets, the principles of safety, profitability, and liquidity should not be ignored.

5. Proper Cash Management: Cash management is an important task of Finance manager. He has to assess the various cash needs at different times and then make arrangements for arranging cash. Cash may be required to make payments to creditors, purchasing raw material, meet wage bills, and meet day to day expenses. The sources of cash may be Cash sales, Collection of debts, Short-term arrangement with the banks. The cash management should be such that neither there is shortage of it and nor it is idle. Any shortage of cash will damage the creditworthiness of the enterprise. The idle cash with the business mean that it is nit properly used. Through Cash Flow Statement one is able to find out various sources and applications of cash.

6. Implementing Finance Controls: An efficient system of Financial Management necessitates the use of various control devices. Finance control device generally used are;

a. Break even analysis

d. Cost control

c. Cost and internal audit.

d. Return Investment

e. Ratio analysis

7. The use of various control techniques: This will help the Finance manager in evaluating the performance in various Areas and take corrective measures whenever needed.

8. Proper use of Surpluses: The utilization of profits or surpluses as also an important factor in Financial Management. A judicious use of surpluses is essential for the expansion and diversification plans and also protecting the interest of the shareholders. The ploughing back of profit is the best policy of further financing. A balance should be struck in using the funds for paying dividends and retaining earnings for financing expansion plans.

What is Financial Management Interrelationships?

Financial Management Interrelationships 

Financial Management is the application of the general management principles in the area of

Finance decision-making, namely in the areas of investment of funds, financing various

activities, and disposal of profits.

Financial Management is the art of planning; organizing, directing and controlling of the

procurement and utilization of the funds and safe disposal of profits to the end that individual,

organizational and social objectives are accomplished.

Financial Management according to Joseph & Massie?

 “Financial Management is the operational activity of a business that is responsible for obtaining and effectively utilizing the funds necessary for efficient operations” 

Financial management According to Guthmann and Dougall 

“Business finance can be broadly defined as the activity concerned with the planning, raising controlling and administrating the funds used in the business.”

What is the meaning of Financial Management?

Meaning of Financial Management

Financial Management refers to that part of the management activity, which is concerned with the planning, & controlling of firm's Finance resources. It deals with finding out various sources for raising funds for the firm. Financial Management is practiced by many corporate firms and can be called Corporation finance or Business Finance.

What is Finance?

 Finance

    Finance is defined as the provision of money at the time when it is required. Every enterprise, whether big, medium, small, needs finance to carry on its operations and to achieve its target. In fact, finance is so indispensable today that it is rightly said to be the blood of an enterprise. Without adequate finance, no enterprise can possibly accomplish its objectives.